Edward Fitzgerald and the Western reception of Persian literature: a catalyst for cross-cultural exchange

1. Introduction

The divan of “Nabighat al-Dhubyani” (late 6th century CE), whose epithet translates to “Genius of Zubeni” or “The Highly Talented Poet from the Tribe of Dhubyan” stands as a fascinating and complex text in the corpus of pre-Islamic Arabic poetry. While celebrated as one of the prominent poets of “Jahiliyya” (pre-Islamic era) and often included among the authors of “Mu'allaqat” [5, 7]. This uncertainty surrounding its authorship, however, does not diminish the literary significance of the divan under study. Regardless of whether the poems were composed by a single individual named as “Nabighat al-Dhubyani” or represent a collection of works from his tribe or era.

The given article dwells on the multifaceted literary significance of the divan of “Nabighat al-Dhubyani”. We will analyze its thematic content, stylistic features, and its impact on subsequent Arabic poetic traditions. By examining the former in question in its historical and literary context, we aim to illuminate its enduring contribution to the rich tapestry of Arabic literature.

2. Authorship and Authenticity: Navigating the Uncertainties

The issue beset with of the divan`s authenticity is central to any discussion of its literary significance. Early Arabic literary historians, such as Ibn Qutayba (d. 889 CE) and al-Asma'i (d. 828 CE), accepted it as the work of “Nabighat al-Dhubyani”, acknowledging him as a master poet [2]. However, later scholars, particularly Orientalists of the 19th and 20th centuries, raised doubts about the attribution, citing inconsistencies in style, language [1].

The debate hinges on several factors:

• Oral Tradition: pre-Islamic poetry was primarily transmitted orally, making it susceptible to alterations, additions, and misattributions over time.
• Tribal Affiliation: poems were often attributed to prominent figures within a tribe, even if composed by others, to enhance the tribe's prestige.
• Later Compilations: The former in question was compiled centuries after the presumed lifetime of “Nabighat al-Dhubyani”, raising questions about the accuracy of the attribution.

While acknowledging these concerns, it is important to note that absolute certainty regarding authorship is often unattainable for texts from this period. Whether the relevant divan represents the work of a single poet or a collection of poems from a particular time and place, its linguistic and thematic coherence suggests a shared cultural and poetic context.

3. Thematic Explorations in the Divan

The divan of “Nabighat al-Dhubyani” encompasses a range of themes characteristic of pre-Islamic Arabic poetry, offering valuable insights into the worldview and social fabric of the time.

3.1. Tribal Identity and Warfare

A significant portion of the mentioned divan is dedicated to themes of tribal pride, loyalty, and inter-tribal conflict. Poems extol the virtues of the poet's tribe, celebrate its victories, and lament its losses. These verses provide a glimpse into the complex dynamics of tribal relationships, the importance of honor (sharaf), and the prevalence of warfare in pre-Islamic Arabia [6]. For instance, in many poems attributed to an-Nabigha, he praises the Banu Zubyan and their martial exploits, highlighting their strength, generosity, and nobility.

3.2. Praise (Madih) and Satire (Hija')

“Nabighat al-Dhubyani” was renowned for his skill in both praise poetry (madih) and satire (hija'). His panegyrics, often addressed to kings and powerful patrons like the Ghassanid and Lakhmid rulers, showcase his mastery of elaborate language and evocative imagery. Conversely, his satirical verses, directed at rivals and enemies, are marked by their wit, sharp criticism, and sometimes, biting humor. It was especially famous to praise the kings of his time and he spent a considerable part of his life at their courts. His poems were often used to mediate between tribes and settle disputes. It was one of his functions as an ambassador for his own tribe.

3.3. Nature and the Desert Landscape

The natural world, particularly the harsh yet beautiful desert environment, plays a prominent role in the relevant divan. Vivid descriptions of animals, plants, landscapes, and celestial phenomena reveal a deep connection to the environment and an acute awareness of its challenges and wonders [4]. Poems often use natural imagery as metaphors for human emotions and experiences, enriching the poetic language.

4. Stylistic Features and Poetic Innovations

The divan of “Nabighat al-Dhubyani” is characterized by a number of distinctive stylistic features that contributed to its literary influence:

• Rich Vocabulary and Imagery: the poems are replete with rich vocabulary, particularly in their descriptions of the natural world and human emotions. The use of vivid and evocative imagery creates a powerful impact on the reader.
• Metrical Mastery: “Nabighat al-Dhubyani” is credited with mastering various poetic meters, particularly the “tawil” meter, which is characterized by its long, flowing lines. His skillful use of meter enhances the musicality and rhythm of his verse.
• Rhetorical Devices: The divan employs a wide range of rhetorical devices, such as similes, metaphors, personification, and parallelism, to create emphasis, enhance meaning, and engage the audience.
• The Use of the Desert as a Central Setting: The desert serves not only as a backdrop but also as a character in itself, influencing the mood and themes of the poems.
• The Development of Courtly Poetry: An-Nabigha is considered one of the pioneers of courtly poetry in Arabic literature. His poems addressed to kings and rulers set a precedent for later poets who sought patronage from powerful figures.

5. Influence and Legacy

Despite the ongoing debate regarding its authenticity, the divan of “Nabighat al-Dhubyani” has exerted a significant influence on the development of Arabic poetry.

• Model for Later Poets: many later poets, both during the early Islamic period and in subsequent centuries, emulated “Nabighat al-Dhubyani's” style, themes, and metrical patterns. His influence is evident in the works of poets such as Jarir, al-Farazdaq, and even later figures like al-Mutanabbi [3].
• Contribution to the Arabic Lexicon: the divan has contributed significantly to the Arabic poetic lexicon, particularly in the areas of nature imagery, descriptions of warfare, and expressions of praise and satire.
• Preservation of Pre-Islamic Culture: regardless of its exact origins, the divan serves as a valuable repository of pre-Islamic cultural values, beliefs, and social practices, providing insights into a period that is otherwise sparsely documented.

6. Conclusion

The divan of “Nabighat al-Dhubyani” occupies a unique and important position in the history of Arabic literature. It provides a captivating glimpse into the world of pre-Islamic Arabia, showcasing the power of oral tradition, the complexities of tribal society, and the enduring beauty of the Arabic language. Further research, utilizing interdisciplinary approaches that combine literary analysis with historical and anthropological perspectives, can further illuminate the divan`s significance and its enduring legacy in the vast and dynamic landscape of Arabic literature.