Comparative study of morphologico-semantical features of some Tajik and English simple adverbs

1. Introduction

Adverbs are considered to be as a crucial part of speech in any language providing essential information about verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and entire clauses. They modify and refine meaning adding nuances of time, place, manner, degree, and other semantic dimensions. While seemingly simple adverbs exhibit considerable cross-linguistic variation in their morphology, semantics, and syntactic functions. This study focuses on a comparative analysis of simple adverbs (those formed without derivational affixes or compounding, as opposed to complex or phrasal adverbs) in Tajik and English [4, с.42; 2, с.148].

Tajik, a Southwestern Iranian language, and English, a West Germanic language, represent distinct linguistic families with different typological characteristics. Tajik is known for its relatively free word order, its use of the izofa construction, and its rich system of verbal morphology. English, on the other hand, has a more fixed word order (SVO), relies heavily on prepositions, and has a less elaborate verbal inflectional system [8, с.50]. These fundamental differences are expected to manifest in the behavior of adverbs as well.

2. Main results and discussion

The comparative analysis of Tajik and English simple adverbs extracted from “Reminiscences” by Aini revealed a complex interplay of similarities and differences. While both languages utilize simple adverbs to express similar semantic categories and perform comparable syntactic functions, the mechanisms by which they achieve this, and the nuances of meaning conveyed, often diverge. This section details the findings for each of the four examples, focusing on morphology, semantics, syntax, and translation strategies.

Example 1:

Ӯ акнун дар Душанбе зиндагӣ мекард [3, с.25] – He now lived in Dushanbe.

Morphology: Both aknun and now are classified as simple adverbs. They are monomorphemic meaning they consist of a single, indivisible morpheme. Neither adverb exhibits any derivational affixes or compounding. This confirms their status as simple adverbs according to the study's criteria.

Semantics: Both adverbs fall under the semantic category of time, specifically indicating the present time. They locate the action of living within the current timeframe relative to the speaker or narrator. While seemingly straightforward, the concept of present can have different scopes. Aknun/now can refer to a very narrow present moment (He is now speaking) or a broader, ongoing present (He now lives in Dushanbe). The context of Aini's narrative suggests the latter, indicating a current state of residence.

Comparison & Translation: This example demonstrates a case of direct equivalence. The two adverbs have nearly identical semantic and syntactic functions. The translation is straightforward and presents no significant challenges. The meaning and grammatical role are preserved seamlessly. This is common for basic time adverbs like now, then, yesterday, etc., which often have close counterparts across languages. However, it's crucial to note that even seemingly simple time adverbs can have subtle differences in usage or connotation in different contexts.

Example 2:

Ман он ҷо бисёр дӯстон пайдо кардам [3, с.48] – I made many friends there.

Morphology: There is a simple, monomorphemic adverb in English. Он ҷо, in Tajik presents a slightly more complex picture. While it functions syntactically as a single adverbial unit, it is compositional in origin, formed from the demonstrative pronoun он (that/yon) and the noun ҷо (place). This type of construction is extremely common in Tajik for expressing location. It's best understood as a lexicalized phrase that has become a simple adverb through frequent use. It's not a compound word in the traditional sense (like nevertheless in English), but it's also not a fully productive syntactic phrase.

Semantics: Both adverbs belong to the semantic category of place. They are deictic, meaning their reference depends on the context of the utterance. There and он ҷо indicate a location that is not near the speaker (in contrast to here/ин ҷо). The specific location is understood from the preceding discourse or the shared knowledge of the speaker and listener.

Comparison & Translation: This represents a close, but not perfectly symmetrical, equivalence. While the meaning and syntactic function are very similar, the internal structure of the Tajik adverbial phrase is more transparent. The translation is straightforward, but it's important to recognize that Tajik relies heavily on this demonstrative + place noun construction for locative adverbs, a pattern not directly replicated in English. This could be considered a systemic difference between the two languages.

Example 3:

Китоб ин ҷо аст [3, с.95] – The book is here.

Morphology: Here is a simple, monomorphemic adverb in English. Ин ҷо functions as a lexicalized unit and simple adverb of place, combining the demonstrative pronoun ин (this) and the noun ҷо (place).

Semantics: Both adverbs fall in the semantic category of place and are deictic.

Comparison & Translation: This is very similar to example 2. The translation is straightforward.

Example 4:

Ӯ зуд рафт [3, с.72] – He left quickly.

Morphology: Зуд is a simple, monomorphemic adverb in Tajik. Quickly, in contrast, is a derived adverb in English. It is formed from the adjective quick and the highly productive adverbial suffix -ly. This is a crucial difference and exemplifies a major typological distinction between the two languages. English extensively uses the suffix -ly to create adverbs of manner from adjectives, while Tajik relies much more on simple, underived adverbs or other strategies (like adverbial phrases).

Semantics: Both adverbs belong to the semantic category of manner specifically describing the speed or rapidity of the action.

Comparison & Translation: This example highlights a significant morphological asymmetry. While the meaning is equivalent, the English translation must use a derived adverb to convey the meaning of the Tajik simple adverb. A literal translation of zud as quick would be ungrammatical in English in this sentence (He left quick is incorrect). This is a very common pattern in translation between Tajik and English: English often requires an -ly adverb where Tajik uses a simple adverb. This reflects a fundamental difference in the grammaticalization of manner adverbs [4, с.38-45; 6].

3. Conclusion

This study has provided a comparative analysis of simple adverbs in Tajik and English, using examples from “Reminiscences” by Sadriddin Aini. The findings demonstrate that while both languages share fundamental similarities in the use of simple adverbs, significant differences exist in their morphological derivation (particularly the English -ly suffix), the lexicalization of place adverbs, and the nuances of translation.