Problems of understanding interpersonal and intercultural communication

Introduction

In the modern world, where intercultural and interethnic contacts are of particular importance, language is the only available means of written and oral communication.

The communication process itself is always directed at the individual and is based on interpersonal communication. The need for international cooperation leads to the need to learn a foreign language within the framework of intercultural communication. Special attention should be paid to the emerging problems of interpersonal and intercultural communication.

Literature review

The theoretical basis of the article is based on the works of the authors, who considered in detail concepts such as perception (E. Sapir and B. Whorf), attribution (G. Kelly), stereotypes and prejudices (W. Lippmann, V.A. Ryzhkov, Y.E. Prokhorov, V.V. Krasnykh).

Methods

The following methods were used to write this article:

1. Scientific literature review: research and analysis of current publications and books on the studying the problems of understanding interpersonal and intercultural communication.
2. Empirical research: the results of previous studies based on empirical data were studied, which allowed us to identify the causes of misunderstandings.

Results and discussion

Misunderstandings and subsequent conflicts arise from various factors linked to an individual's perception of the world.

Perception, a multifaceted mechanism, influences all senses and shapes how information is interpreted based on personal experiences. Within the realm of interpersonal and intercultural communication, personal experience is constrained by specific knowledge, including:

• language,
• linguistic and cultural studies,
• cultural understanding,
• psychological insights.

Absence of any of these elements can lead to misinterpretations of a representative's reactions from another culture, potentially resulting in failed negotiations, uncompleted deals, and conflicts. Resolving such situations requires awareness of factors influencing perception, such as:

• the first impression,
• attractiveness,
• superiority,
• personal attitude.

The first impression sets the tone for subsequent communication, where appearance, including attire and grooming, can convey social status. Nonverbal cues, such as clothing color and greetings, play crucial roles, and failure to adhere to these basic rules can have serious consequences in business communication.

The attractiveness factor is subjective, varying across cultures and influencing how a person's appearance is perceived.

Similarly, the superiority factor, determined by:

• clothing,
• posture,
• view,
• gestures,
• speech behavior.

All these features shape the status of the interlocutor in communication.

Personal attitude also impacts perception, with better relations between partners only possible if there is shared interest or a willingness to compromise.

The process of perception is shaped by a variety of contributing elements as previously outlined. Nonetheless, it's critical to recognize that the importance of each element can diminish or intensify depending on the context.

Cultural context significantly shapes human perception, as individuals interpret information through the lens of their cultural experiences, value systems, prejudices, and stereotypes. Language, a defining cultural determinant, also influences perception, with studies showing that individuals from different cultures perceive the world differently.

This has given rise to two positions:

• the nominalist;
• the relativistic.

The nominalist viewpoint suggests that an individual's understanding of the world around them can occur independently of linguistic expression. Language serves as a vehicle for thought, which means the same idea can be conveyed across various languages, indicating that cognitive processes are uniform across diverse cultural backgrounds.

The relativist perspective posits that language does not merely articulate thoughts but also plays an integral role in shaping one's worldview and cultural understanding. This concept has gained acceptance, largely due to the supportive evidence found in the research conducted by E. Sapir and B. Whorf [5, p.162].

Attribution plays a crucial role in forming opinions about others during communication.

The American researcher and psychologist, Fritz Heider, concluded that attribution serves as a psychological mechanism that simplifies a scenario, rendering it comprehensible and graspable.

Gerald Kelly identified several categories of attribution, which include:

• Motivational;
• Personal;
• Situational [1, p.133].

Attribution errors, stemming from differences in available information, reality, and motivational factors, significantly impact interpersonal and intercultural communication.

These errors, such as fundamental attribution error, illusory correlations, and error of false consensus, influence how individuals perceive and interpret the actions of others. Moreover, stereotypes, serving as simplified, distorted perceptions based on existing representations, and prejudices, sharply negative biased attitudes, play significant roles in communication and can lead to conflicts if used ineffectively.

In the 1920s, American journalist W. Lippmann introduced the term stereotype to describe a simplistic and skewed understanding of information that aligns with pre-existing, widely recognized notions [3, p.68].

Scholars view stereotypes as patterns of behavior, encapsulating the dominant representation of reality within verbal interactions. For instance, V.A. Ryzhkov views a stereotype as a communicative construct within an ethnic community that shapes an individual's consciousness and motivates their behavior [5, p.9]. Y.E. Prokhorov further elaborates on speech communication stereotypes, considering them as sociocultural constructs that emerge in conversational settings through associations tied to specific cultural contexts [4, p.125]. V.V. Krasnykh perceives a stereotype as a static image ingrained in one's mental perception, distorting the true representation of the world through this lens [2, p.201].

Two principal factors contribute to the development of stereotypes:

1. Specification involves attaching a particular known image to a concept in the mind.
2. Simplification entails an abbreviated evaluation of a situation, action, or image.

The roles served by stereotypes are diverse:

• They facilitate the relay of generally accurate information by drawing generalizations from observations of other cultures and simplifying reality.
• The orientation function provides a pared-down framework for understanding reality, aiding in the interpretation of situations influenced by different cultures.
• The influence function permits distinction between cultures, thus safeguarding their intrinsic values, principles, and norms.

Stereotypes, consequently, are vital in all forms of communication but may also spark conflicts when misapplied – for example, when they blend with errant personal perceptions or when mistakes arise from stereotypical influences.

Contrasting stereotypes, prejudices invariably tilt towards negativity, characterized by adversely prejudiced attitudes. Prejudices stem from a profound failure to understand others, prompting emotional and intense responses to situations.

Types of prejudices include:

• Baseless prejudices that deem one group inferior or superior to another;
• Symbolic prejudices that view foreign groups as threats to one's cultural integrity;
• Covert prejudices that mask themselves as goodwill;
• “Long arm” prejudices where positive perceptions of others are situation-dependent;
• Antipathy-based prejudices exhibiting overt aversion to another group;
• “Friend-stranger” prejudices that involve shunning contact with others to maintain personal tranquility.

Undeniably, prejudices lay the groundwork for conflict, and a key aim in both interpersonal and intercultural communication training is their eradication. Recognizing these elements as precursors to conflict is crucial in exploring potential resolutions.

Intercultural conflicts can arise between different ethnic groups, religions, linguistic and cultural communities, generations, subcultures, and between traditionalists and innovators.

Conflicts can stem from personal, social, and organizational reasons, including disrespectful expression of emotions, unwillingness to compromise, and unreasonable changes in work dynamics.

Resolving conflicts requires strategies such as compromise, cooperation, concessions, competition, and avoidance, all aimed at addressing issues in interpersonal and intercultural communication.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it can be stated that the factors contributing to misunderstandings encompass the following: perception, attribution errors, stereotypes and prejudices. All these circumstances can potentially lead to the emergence of conflicts that necessitate effective resolution. The subsequent approaches to conflict resolution have been identified: compromise, cooperation, concessions, competition, and avoidance.