Development of bilateral diplomatic relations between Russia and Ecuador

Research Methodology

In writing this article, the author was based on the theory of classical realism. The selection and study of certain events, phenomena and facts help to study the changes in the policy of Ecuador from 2007 to 2025. In the framework of systemic analysis, a systemic approach was used to logically and consistently study the foreign policy of Ecuador in relation to the Russian Federation, which will help to identify the basis of Ecuador's foreign policy and the possibility of establishing bilateral cooperation with Russia. The method of comparative analysis is used to identify the peculiarities of Ecuador's foreign policy concept during the Correa administration and after he left office. In a similar way, the article combines the analysis of official documents of Ecuador, analyses the historical basis of the country's international policy, and examines the foreign policy of Ecuador.

Acknowledgements for support to the Secretariat of Higher Education, Science, Technology, and Innovation (in Spanish SENESCYT), Postal Code: 1701518, Quito-Ecuador.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Conceptual framework for Ecuador's foreign policy

The Constitution of the Republic of Ecuador is the most important document of the country, the supreme norm to which all Ecuadorian legislation is subject, which establishes the basic norms that protect the rights, freedoms and duties of all citizens, as well as the rights of the State and its institutions [1].

The new Constitution of Ecuador was adopted in 2008 under the presidency of Rafael Correa and is the conceptual framework for Ecuador's foreign policy. The new Constitution abrogates the 1998 Constitution of Ecuador. It is important to note that the 1998 Constitution made Ecuador a presidential republic, established a unicameral parliament and increased the importance, powers and role of the judiciary in the country, which remained unchanged even after the adoption of the new Constitution.

However, in 2008, the position of Vice-President was introduced, presidential terms were limited to one, the powers of Parliament were expanded, etc. The 2008 Constitution established a number of new social and economic rights, such as the right to access to clean water and the right to development, and clearly described the new foreign policy of the Republic. The mechanism of "Muerte cruzada" (early elections) was also introduced in Ecuador when the new Constitution was adopted. This mechanism is fundamental to the system of balanced powers and the principle of separation of powers [2].

The principle of early presidential elections implies reciprocal control mechanisms between the executive, legislative and judicial branches of government. This means that each of the branches of government has the right and obligation to control and balance the actions of the other branches [3]. Within the mechanism of early elections, the following key features can be identified:

• Control of the legislature over the executive: Parliament has the right to grant powers to the executive and control their execution.
• Control of the judiciary over the executive and the legislature: The judiciary has the power to evaluate the laws passed by the legislature and the actions of the executive in accordance with the Constitution during its activities.
• Control of the executive over the legislative and judicial branches: The President and his government are bound to honour and execute the laws passed by Parliament and the decisions of the courts.
• Interaction and respect between the branches of government: It is important for each branch to exercise Its functions and control over the other branches within the framework of the Constitution, and to respect and recognise the authority of the other branches.

The mechanism of early elections is fundamental to democratic government in Ecuador, ensuring the balance and independence of powers. It also contributes to preventing the concentration of power in one hand and provides a system of checks and balances in the evolution of the country's political system, but the same mechanism has been maximally corrupted to date.

The new constitution reflected Ecuador's intention to pursue a free and sovereign foreign policy, freeing the country from foreign influence. From the outset, the preamble made it clear that Ecuador was a sovereign state, free from any form of colonialism and foreign domination. And the first article of the Constitution states that all of Ecuador's natural resources belong to it alone and not to alienation, this is so important for the preservation of the country's sovereignty that the norm is repeated in articles 317 and 408 [4].

The new constitution reflected Correa's intention to free the country from foreign influence. For example, the preamble clearly states that Ecuador is a sovereign state free from all forms of colonialism and foreign domination.

Another factor that defines Ecuador's foreign policy and also makes the 2008 Constitution unique is its proclamation of "Sumac Kawsay", which is Quechua for "good life", this concept is to build society and the state in such a way that citizens live a decent life and the state has a decent position in the international arena, rather than being a small state that big powers use for their own benefit.

The new constitution also prohibits the reimbursement of military bases to a foreign state or the transfer of national military bases to them, which conveys the foreign policy line of Ecuador, which along with others such as Cuba, Venezuela and Bolivia are building a sharp policy against the United States and its domination of the Latin American region [5, p. 69-80].

About the objective of defending the sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity of the State, it should be noted as a precedent that, from 1942 to the end of the 1990s, Ecuador's foreign relations were defined by the territorial conflict with the Republic of Peru, which had a significant impact on the country's foreign policy. Ecuador sought to defend its sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity.

It is important to note that in 2008, the Ecuadorian Constitution declared "food sovereignty" as an important goal for the country's economic development. To achieve food sovereignty, Ecuador needed to develop the sectors of agriculture, fisheries, and small and medium-sized enterprises, based on the principles of "21st century socialism" announced by the Government.

Foreign capital invested in Ecuador is recognised only as a complement to domestic investment, as the State clearly prefers its domestic products and national investors. When it comes to the strategic objectives that the new government has set for the Ecuadorian Foreign Ministry, they are enshrined in section eight of the Constitution, and they are as follows:

• Defence and preservation of Ecuador's sovereignty in the international arena;
• Obligation to develop and expand the integration of the Latin American region in order to meet national interests;
• Strengthening Ecuador's international cooperation in the world and in Latin America;
• Respect for national interests and priorities;
• Ensuring increased democratisation and transparency in the management of public affairs.

According to the Ecuadorian Constitution, Ecuador's international policy is to integrate the Republic of Ecuador into the international and regional political and economic community. To that end, it is necessary to promote the consolidation of a multipolar world through the creation of new structures and mechanisms in the international environment. It is also necessary to promote and consolidate Ecuador's position as a territory free of weapons of mass destruction and nuclear weapons (Ecuador is a signatory to the Treaty of Tlatecolco). Ecuador's international policy has been based on the principles of mutual recognition and solidarity with other countries, especially those in the South American region, which have also suffered from neoliberal influences. According to the Constitution, Ecuador stood for the principles of recognition of the independence of other states, for the settlement of any international conflicts only peacefully and democratically, without the use of military power, and even more so without the use of nuclear weapons.

Despite the constitution, since Correa's departure, Ecuador's foreign policy has become law oriented. President Moreno's electoral plan focused on developing a South-South relationship, democratizing the United Nations system, strengthening regional integration bodies: UNASUR, CELAC, ALBA, promoting dialogue between the South American bloc and China and Russia, but all points were unfulfilled. Instead, Lenin Moreno established a strategic partnership with the United States, leading anew to its becoming Ecuador's main political ally. Under his leadership, Ecuador withdrew from ALBA and began the process of joining the Pacific Alliance. These changes in the country's foreign policy do not support the concept of "buen vivir" as spelled out in the Constitution of the Republic of Ecuador. Moreover, after 2017, changes were made to the Ecuadorian Constitution, such as:

• The limitation of presidential terms to two consecutive periods was approved. This change is aimed at mitigating the risks of the emergence of long presidential regimes and encouraging regular renewal of the political elite;
• Priority is given to the use of renewable energy sources. This helps to reduce dependence on oil and gas and also reduces the negative impact on the environment;
• There is a separation of powers to combat corruption and public participation in the appointment of top judges and prosecutors. This allows for a more independent and transparent judiciary;
• The mandatory preliminary examination for parties was abolished. This change favours simplification of the process of registration of political parties, etc.

Moreno's predecessor Guillermo Lasso continued his outward course.

Thus, we observe that the conceptual basis of Ecuador's foreign policy is the Constitution, which was legally adopted in 2008.

However, after the departure of President Correa, the following presidents of Ecuador stopped adopting the foreign policy course enshrined in the Constitution, reverting to a pro-Western foreign policy course, which affected Ecuador's bilateral relations with various countries, including Russia. Unfortunately, this has also caused Ecuador to lose some of its independence in making foreign policy decisions.

Peculiarities of the Russian vector of Ecuador's foreign policy

The Russian vector in Ecuador's foreign policy has been present for quite some time. Official diplomatic relations between the USSR and Ecuador were established on 29 October 1980. Although before that, the Soviet Union had maintained very close relations with the Ecuadorian Socialist Party and even made the Ecuadorean Party officially part of the Comintern in 1928 [7].

While René Mouge tells us that relations with the CPSU began in '32, when a delegation led by César Endura travelled to the USSR for political purposes, and later a group of students went to study at the University of the East. According to this co-operation, the Ecuadorian-Soviet Friendship House was established, which "hosted literary and cultural events, as well as promotional and cultural exchange activities between the two countries". It also helped to organise several training sessions, mainly for the study of the Russian language.

It was from 1960 that vocational training trips were organised to the USSR, with quotas distributed through the Socialist, Communist Parties and trade unions such as the CTE (Central Committee of Workers of Ecuador). Later, on 12 February 1945, diplomatic relations were established between Ecuador and the USSR at the level of diplomatic missions. The foundations of these relations were laid by a telegram sent by the President of Ecuador, José María Velasco Ibarra, to M. Kalinin, Chairman of the Presidium of the USSR Soviet, congratulating him on the victory of the Russian army in World War II. The telegram was gratefully received and duly responded to.

Just a few days after receiving the first Soviet Ambassador to Ecuador, Ivan Ivanovich, on 10 June 1970, Ecuador presented credentials to its first Ambassador from Ecuador to the USSR, Juan Isaac Lovato. However, it was on 10 December 1982 that both countries signed a consular agreement that established consular offices, their functions, appointment, dismissal of bureau members, privileges, benefits and immunities.

In 1970, an important foundation stone was laid for friendship and co-operation between the Central University of Ecuador and the Patrice Lumumba Peoples' Friendship University. The significant agreement on student and scientific exchange signed by Rectors Manuel Agustin Aguirre and S. Rumyantsev symbolises the beginning of an important stage in the history of the union. Rumyantsev, symbolises the beginning of an important stage in the history of the union between the two respected educational institutions.

From the 1950s to the 1980s, the Soviet Union supported leftist regimes in Latin America, including Ecuador. This resulted in the signing of various treaties and cooperation agreements in the fields of culture, economy and defence, as well as financial and technical assistance.

Thereafter, diplomatic relations between the two countries developed in a peaceful atmosphere, indicating a new stage in relations between Russia and Ecuador. In January 1992, Ecuador expressed its intention to maintain ties with Russia at the same level as with the CIS countries, which elicited a favourable reaction from the Russian leadership.

However, relations began to develop rapidly and dynamically only in 2007 after Rafael Correa came to the leadership of the country. Correa completely overhauled Ecuador’s foreign policy not only was a new constitution adopted, but the government also created the "Plan del buen vivir" - an initiative in Ecuador aimed at creating favourable conditions for a healthy and sustainable lifestyle. The plan includes various programmes and activities aimed at improving the quality of life of the population, including education, health, social protection, environmental protection and preserving Ecuador's sovereignty. The main principles of the plan are justice, social solidarity, sustainable development and the implementation of an independent foreign policy. The state during Correa's time has focused on implementing the guarantee of sovereignty and the preservation of peace, ensuring Ecuador's strategic integration into the world community and the Latin American region. It is based on the axes of territorial independence, food and energy security, economic and financial sovereignty, free trade, human mobility and the defence of human rights. The Government's plan aims at the strategic and sovereign integration of Ecuador in the global and Latin American context.

Also under Correa, the political discourse of the country has been that Ecuador intends to build a multipolar world, moving away from US domination and calling on other countries, especially Latin American countries, to be part of a global political movement in which new counterbalances are emerging to counter the economic imbalances caused by global capitalism. Precisely, in order to stop independent Ecuador is starting to look for other countries with whom it can co-operate more closely in order to get rid of political and economic dependence on the United States. One such country is the Russian Federation.

The first official visit of the Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov to Ecuador in November 2008 gave a powerful impetus to the development of relations between the two countries, which resulted in the signing of the Intergovernmental Agreement on Cooperation in the Military-Technical Sphere and the Joint Declaration on Strategic Cooperation between Russia and Ecuador.

Russia has started providing loans to Ecuador, for example, a loan agreement was signed for the supply of turbines for the third largest power plant in the province of El Oro and the use of this gas-fired power plant. The main agreements signed relate to strategic sectors: a contract was signed for the supply of hydropower and mechanical equipment for hydroelectric plants. In the transport sector, Ecuador has tried to establish cooperation with Russia in the construction of a railway.

In the field of education, during the official visit of the Ecuadorian President to Russia in October 2009, an agreement on scientific cooperation was signed between the National Secretariat of Science and Technology of Ecuador and eight Russian universities, the huge jump of young students from Ecuador to the Russian Federation proves the importance of cooperation between Russia and the Republic of Ecuador in the field of education. Even now, 8 years after Correa left the presidency, most Latin American students in the RF are Ecuadorians.

Trade and economic relations between Ecuador and Russia have seen significant growth. Turnover as of 2015 was US$1.5 billion. Ecuador exports bananas, flowers, coffee, seafood, timber and tropical fruits to Russia, while Russian supplies mainly include fertilisers, paper, medical equipment and metal.

However, after 2017, with the coming to power of right-wing politicians, cooperation with the Russian Federation was put on the back burner, and the Ecuadorian government refocused on its closest neighbour, the United States. During the period from 2019 to 2022, there were some negative moments in the relationship between the Russian Federation and Ecuador. For example, during this period, disputes and disagreements arose between the two countries over some trade and economic issues, such as tariffs on imported goods.

There may also have been problems with the fulfilment of some of the commitments and agreements concluded between the Russian Federation and Ecuador. Nevertheless, despite the negative aspects, both countries continued to strive to improve their relations and seek compromises to resolve the problems that arose.

Peculiarities of political relations between Ecuador and the Russian Federation after 2007

After the left turn that occurred in Ecuador, issues of international relations have taken on a new level of importance. The political map of the region has changed, opening up new perspectives for interaction between countries, including Ecuador and the Russian Federation.

Because the left turn policy in Ecuador is labelled as one of its main goals of liberation from American domination and influence over Ecuador, as well as preserving the country's sovereignty and pursuing its own independent foreign policy, which has forced the Ecuadorian government to reassess its international relations and start looking for new allies.

In a changing geopolitical environment, Ecuador has expressed interest in strengthening the Russian Federation's co-operation, which is based on a common position on a number of key international issues, including the principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of other States, a multi-vector foreign policy and the desire to strengthen international security and stability.

After 2007, the two countries became so close that Ecuador became one of the most important and priority partner countries of the Russian Federation in the Latin American region [8]. The Russian Federation and Ecuador begin to introduce intergovernmental and interagency cooperation, consultations between the foreign ministers of the two countries are held on international issues, but also bilateral cooperation between the two countries.

In March 2015, a delegation of Russian deputies met with representatives of the Latin American Parliament. In June 2013, a group of representatives from Ecuador visited Russia. In November 2011, high-level officials from Russia visited Ecuador, including Secretary of the Security Council and others. In 2010, Russia's Deputy Foreign Minister visited Ecuador, praising the strategic importance of the Ecuadorian market for Russian interests [9, p. 71].

Proof that political relations between Ecuador and the Russian Federation have become truly warm is the visit to Ecuador of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, Sergey Lavrov. Never before in the history of co-operation between the two countries have there been visits of such high rank. The talks with Lavrov showed that Ecuador is ready to cooperate with Russia in such areas as nuclear energy, hydrocarbon trade, cooperation in various international organisations and platforms for the creation of a just multipolar world.

In 2009, a declaration of strategic partnership between Ecuador and the Russian Federation [10] was signed, and just then, for the first time in the history of relations between Russia and Ecuador, an official visit of the President of Ecuador to the Russian Federation took place.

In addition, there have been constant negotiations and consultations between the two countries at the level of national courts, or even as an example, Lenin Moreno, then Vice President of Ecuador, travelled to Russia in 2011 to meet with entrepreneurs and hold talks at the Ministry of Culture. Crucial links were established with agencies such as: EMERCOM, FCS, Rosselkhoznadzora, FSVTS and others.

Naturally, there was no lack of inter-party relations. The United Russia party and Alliance Pais have been in constant communication, which has contributed to the development of relations not only between the parties, but also between the countries. In 2017, a delegation from United Russia visited a number of countries in the Latin American region, including Ecuador, where talks were held with representatives of Alliance Pais [11]. The parties have been quite instrumental in promoting and accelerating co-operation in the information sector, the environment, in the fight against drugs, agriculture and especially in biofuel production and forestry [12].

However, the interaction between the two countries is also conducted on the platforms of international and regional organisations such as the UN, where Ecuador has repeatedly supported the initiatives of the Russian Federation, or CELAC, where, in the process of negotiations with the CELAC Quartet, Sergei Lavrov met with Ecuadorian Foreign Minister G. Logue, which led to the signing of a number of agreements between the two countries. It should also be taken into account that in 2015 a mechanism of political co-operation "Russia-CELAC" was created [13].

However, in 2017, after Lenin Moreno came to power, there was a rethinking and revision of the country's foreign policy, which played a major role in distancing Ecuador from the Russian Federation, as unlike Correa, Lenin Moreno sought to restore and improve relations with the United States of America and with the European Union.

While military cooperation and political ties with Russia were strong under Correa, under Moreno, despite Ecuador's neutral attitude towards Russia, these ties and cooperation weakened, and Ecuador did not conclude major new agreements on the supply of military equipment from Russia.

Moreno's political rhetoric differed from Correa's in that it was less antagonistic to the west and more pragmatic. Moreno's Lenin focused more on solving Ecuador's internal problems in order to create a politically economically attractive country.

Another contrast with relations with Russia under Correa is that during Moreno's mandate there were no significant state meetings and visits between the Republic of Ecuador and the Russian Federation, which slowed down the process of co-operation between Russia and Ecuador in certain spheres, as well as distancing the two countries from each other more and more.

In international organisations, Ecuador under Lenin Moreno was more inclined to remain neutral in matters concerning the Russian Federation, but in certain matters Ecuador continued to support Russia, although these were becoming fewer and fewer and Ecuador did not take an active stance towards them.

Looking further ahead, after Lasso's victory in the presidential elections in 2021, they took on a completely different colouring. Lasso continued Moreno's policy outwardly, but in a more radical form, with an even greater emphasis on attracting foreign capital to Ecuador.

COVID-19 and the different geopolitical situations in the world could not but affect Lasso's foreign policy course and Ecuador's political discourse in international organisations.

Visits and meetings with representatives of the Russian government became less frequent than under Moreno and were not particularly constructive. In 2022, the Ecuador-Russia Inter-Parliamentary Friendship Group visited the Russian Federation with the aim of improving inter-parliamentary relations and co-operation in certain areas between the two countries. However, the visit did not lead to any results, and on the contrary, the deputies were very strongly criticised by the Ecuadorian media and the government for visiting the Russian Federation.

The Special Military Operation also affected Ecuador's relationship with Russia, as the pro-American President Lasso viewed the SVO as an invasion of Ukraine by Russia, causing Ecuador to support all sanctions against the Russian Federation, which negatively affected the political ties between the two states [14], due to the wrongness of President Lasso's actions and unfair treatment of the Russian Federation.

The election of Daniel Noboa as President of Ecuador in 2023 was an important turning point for the country. His policies and foreign policy decisions led to significant changes in relations with the Russian Federation. Noboa, like his predecessors Moreno and Lasso, has sought to strengthen ties with Western countries and especially the United States of America, and his reorientation of foreign policy has had quite an impact on relations with Russia. Public statements by Noboa and his administration in favour of the West and in support of sanctions against Russia caused tensions in bilateral relations, which was already a signal of the countries' estrangement from each other [15]. As a result, the Russian government perceived this as an unfriendly move and a violation of the principles of mutual respect.

Thus, it can be concluded that the political relations between Ecuador and Russia from 2007 to 2024 went through positive periods where the countries actively cooperated, but also through crises caused by internal instability, the international situation and changes in Ecuador's foreign policy.

Trade and economic relations between Ecuador and the Russian Federation

Ecuador's economy depends mainly on the export of a few commodities such as oil, bananas, shrimp, flowers, cacao and other agricultural products. Between 50–60% of export revenues come from the oil sector and this sector provides about 30–40% of government revenues [16]. Ecuador is the largest exporter of bananas in the world, but also shrimp and cacao exports are very important to the Ecuadorian economy, however, during Correa's mandate Ecuador started to develop non-traditional export goods such as: cars and flowers.

The Government of Ecuador has actively pursued a policy of national industrialisation and economic diversification, focusing on the development of industries such as oil and gas, agriculture, fisheries and high value-added products.

Trade and economic relations between Ecuador and the Russian Federation are governed by the 1969 trade agreement between the Republic of Ecuador and the USSR. The agreement includes not only the exchange of services and goods, but also co-operation in the cultural sphere, technical assistance and education [17].

However, the strong economic co-operation between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Ecuador dates back to the 1990s, when both countries started looking for new markets and partners to diversify their economies. Trade between the countries gradually increased, but the agro-industrial sector stands out the most, as Ecuador began to supply vegetables and fruits to Russia and Russia supplied Ecuador with fertilisers.

A very important role in the trade relations between the two countries between 2010 and 2016 is played by the imports to Ecuador of: fertilisers, boilers, electrical equipment, nuclear reactors, oil and mineral fuels. While Ecuador imported foodstuffs, fruits and flowers to Russia [18].

During the visit of a delegation of the State Atomic Energy Corporation to Quito on 19 August 2009, a Memorandum of Understanding was concluded between the State Atomic Energy Corporation and the Ministry of Electricity and Renewable Energy of Ecuador on cooperation in the peaceful uses of atomic energy.

Ecuador strives to be an energy independent country, which is why a number of agreements were concluded with the Russian Federation during Correa's mandate, such as: In 2009 Premium Engineering LLC from Russia and Petroecuador from Ecuador signed an agreement on co-operation in the extraction and processing of associated gas in the province of Sucumbios, in 2010 a contract was signed for the supply of electromechanical equipment for the Toachi Pilaton hydroelectric power plant complex, in 2010 a contract was signed between companies for the supply of electromechanical equipment for three hydroelectric power plants in Ecuador ("Sarapuyo", "Ayuriquin", "Toachi"), with a loan agreement for 120 million dollars for 11 years [19].

In 2017, Russia exported mineral products, timber and chemicals mainly to Ecuador [20].

Obviously, the share of nuclear reactors and boilers in exports decreased by 100% compared to 2016. The share of exports of "other goods" also decreased by 21%, as well as machinery and equipment by 14%. At the same time, the share of metals and metal products increased significantly by 9%, mineral products by 9% and chemical products by almost 40%.

The structure of imports from Ecuador to Russia in 2017 shows that 99.97% of shipments were food products and raw materials. High growth compared to 2016 was noted in commodity groups such as cocoa and cocoa products (by $6.0 billion), nuts and fruits (by $114.4 billion).

The dynamics of foreign trade transactions shows that Russia has a negative balance, which shows that Ecuador benefits from trade.

Another area of economic cooperation between the two countries is the modernisation of the nuclear industry in Ecuador with the participation of the Russian Federation.

The development of transport links and railways has been important for cooperation between Ecuador and Russia, as economic and trade relations suffer due to transport problems. Ecuador now has a direct Atlantic trade route to St. Petersburg, but to the city of Vladivostok, trade transport from Ecuador is carried out via the Pacific Ocean, as it is shorter and more convenient.

Russian companies are also showing great interest in investing in Ecuador's oil and gas sector and in infrastructure projects.

In 2019, an agreement was signed between Russian Railways and the Ecuadorian government regarding cooperation in railway construction and modernisation.

In the first half of 2021, trade turnover between Russia and Ecuador totalled US$942,049,817, an increase of 16.02% (by US$130,050,707) compared to the same period in 2020. The export of goods from Russia to Ecuador in the first half of 2021 reaches 173,378,778 USD, an increase of 50.37% (by 58,080,614 USD) compared to the same period of 2020. This is proof that despite the politically tense relations between Ecuador and the Russian Federation after Correa's departure, the economic sphere continues to develop [21, p. 256-259].

However, the further development of relations between Russia and Ecuador is closely linked to the economic prospects of both countries. Given the unstable global situation, economic transformations and sanctions from Western countries, Russia needs to return to strengthening its domestic economic position in order to continue to develop a favourable relationship.

Ecuador's economy is closely linked to the production and export of oil, which generates more than half of its export revenues. However, falling oil prices and the underdevelopment of the national refining industry have forced Ecuador to purchase expensive petroleum products on world markets. Proposals by Russian companies to develop the country's oil refining complex could prove to be highly demanded and favourable for both parties.

In 2021, according to Rosselkhoznadzor, trade turnover between the two countries increased by almost 29% to $1.9 billion, and exports from the Russian Federation also increased 2.1-fold to $460 million over the year. Regarding supplies from Ecuador, the number of imported flowers increased to 486 million pieces in 2021, compared to 104 million pieces in 2020. There is also a significant increase in crustacean shipments, from 15.8 thousand tonnes in 2020 to 25.1 thousand tonnes in 2021 [22].

Importantly, January-November 2023 shipments totalled 67.3 million cases of bananas from Ecuador to Russia. Interaction between the two countries after the arrival of Ecuadorian President Daniel Noboa in 2023 revolved around banana and flower shipments, with 20% of all Ecuadorian bananas exported to Russia [23].

Thus, we can see that economic relations from 2007 to 2023 have gone through various stages, from initial establishment and active growth to adaptation to international challenges and crises. Unfortunately, due to the internal turmoil in Ecuador after Correa's resignation from the presidency, relations with Russia, including economic relations, have not developed as much as they could have. Today, the countries face the tasks of further strengthening cooperation, diversifying economic ties, developing new areas of interaction, and overcoming misunderstandings in certain aspects of relations. These efforts can lay the foundation for a sustainable and long-term partnership in the future.

Political and economic relations between Ecuador and the Russian Federation between 2007 and 2023 have been characterized by both positive and negative aspects.

On the one hand, co-operation in the energy sector and increased trade ties between the two countries have set the stage for economic development and diversification of Ecuador's exports, as well as a strong political partnership between the two countries.

On the other hand, domestic political instability and economic fluctuations have created significant difficulties for both Ecuador and Russia, leading to a crisis in relations between the two countries in 2023.

To rebuild and further strengthen relations, it is necessary to adapt to changing international conditions, diversify areas of co-operation, and restore political relations.

Conclusion

Thus, the analysis of Ecuador's foreign policy relations shows their qualitative change after Rafael Correa came to power. He declared national independence, promotion of socially oriented values and opposition to US imperialism. The basis of Ecuador's foreign policy concept is enshrined in the country's Constitution adopted in 2008, and the priorities and features of the foreign policy course are determined by the Constitutional Principle of National Sovereignty. An analysis of bilateral relations between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Ecuador reveals that relations between Ecuador and Russia from 2007 to 2023 reflect the complex dynamics of political, economic and humanitarian interactions between the two countries.

Political relations between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Ecuador have been warm since Rafael Correa came to power. The president had the goal of diversifying Ecuador's political and economic partners, as he wanted to free Ecuador from the influence of the United States of America and fought for Ecuador to become an independent and autonomous state in the international arena. However, after Correa left office, Presidents Moreno, Lasso and Noboa reoriented Ecuador's foreign policy with an emphasis on rapprochement with countries of the West and the United States, especially President Noboa took a very radical stance towards Russia, supporting sanctions against it and opposing the NWO, which was seen by the Russian Federation as an unfriendly move and not respecting the principles of mutual respect between countries.

Trade and economic relations have been volatile from 2007 to 2025, characterised by both growth and decline in trade turnover, as well as changes in the structure of merchandise trade. At the beginning of the period (2007–2013), trade turnover between the countries tended to increase, especially in the context of high oil prices, which favoured the supply of oil products from Russia and goods from Ecuador. The main goods exported from Ecuador to Russia were agricultural products such as cocoa, bananas, shrimps, flowers, etc. In turn, Russia exported industrial goods, equipment and petroleum products to Ecuador. Further from 2014 to 2023 trade turnover increased in 2021, but after the arrival of President Lasso, due to internal instability in the country, and later holding early elections, where Daniel Noboa won, trade and economic relations revolved around bananas and flowers.

In general, despite numerous challenges and obstacles, bilateral relations between Ecuador and Russia have experienced both very favourable periods and moments of deterioration, when the countries hardly ever meet at an official level. This decline in relations is clearly visible at present, especially under the rule of Daniel Noboa.

Nevertheless, the election that took place on 13 April 2025 in Ecuador could be a turning point that could fundamentally change the nature of relations between the two countries. The new leader who wins could initiate new initiatives aimed at restoring and strengthening co-operation in various areas such as the economy, culture and security. This opens new horizons for mutual ties and could lead to a more constructive dialogue between Ecuador and Russia.

Thus, the future of bilateral relations will depend on the political will of Ecuador's new leadership and its willingness to co-operate with Russia, which could lead to more stable and productive relations in the international arena.